A permanent resident alien is a noncitizen who has been granted the legal right to live and work in the United States on a permanent basis. Federal law defines the status as the privilege of residing permanently in the country as an immigrant, and the physical proof of that privilege is the Permanent Resident Card, better known as the Green Card.1Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 8 USC 1101 – Definitions A permanent resident keeps their original citizenship, follows most of the same laws a U.S. citizen follows, and can eventually apply to naturalize.
The word “alien” in the term is a legal label from the Immigration and Nationality Act, not a description of the person’s background. It simply means someone who is not a U.S. citizen or national. What sets a permanent resident apart from other noncitizens is that the authorization to stay has no expiration date built into it: the plastic card expires every ten years, but the status itself continues until the person gives it up, abandons it, or has it taken away.
What a Permanent Resident Can Do
Green Card holders live under most of the same constitutional protections as citizens, including due process and equal protection. You can live anywhere in the country, buy and own property, attend public schools and universities, and obtain a driver’s license in your state. You can work for nearly any private employer without needing a separate work permit, and the Green Card itself is proof of your right to work.
Travel abroad is allowed, and the Green Card is the document you use to return to the United States after short trips. Permanent residents can also petition for certain close family members to immigrate: a spouse, unmarried children under 21, and unmarried sons or daughters of any age.2U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Family of Green Card Holders (Permanent Residents)
After enough time in the country, a permanent resident can apply for U.S. citizenship. That path is the main long-term difference between this status and a temporary visa.
What a Permanent Resident Cannot Do
Several activities are reserved for U.S. citizens, and crossing those lines can have serious consequences.
Voting in federal elections is off-limits. Casting a ballot in a federal election as a noncitizen is a criminal offense carrying a fine, up to one year in prison, or both, and a conviction can lead to deportation.3Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 USC 611 – Voting by Aliens A few local jurisdictions permit noncitizen voting in certain municipal races, but state and federal elections are closed. Federal jury service is also citizens-only.4United States Courts. Juror Qualifications, Exemptions and Excuses
Most competitive-service federal jobs are closed to noncitizens under Executive Order 11935. Agencies may hire a noncitizen when no qualified citizen is available, but Congress often narrows even that exception through appropriations language.5U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Employment FAQ – Do I Have to Be a US Citizen to Apply Jobs that require a security clearance are effectively unavailable to Green Card holders.
Family sponsorship is narrower than what citizens can do. A permanent resident cannot petition for married children, parents, or siblings, and wait times in the family preference categories that are available are often much longer than the equivalent citizen categories.
Federal means-tested benefits come with a delay. Green Card holders who entered the country on or after August 22, 1996, generally face a five-year waiting period before qualifying for programs like Supplemental Security Income. After that period, SSI eligibility typically requires 40 qualifying quarters of work, which can include quarters earned by a spouse or parent.6Social Security Administration. SSI Spotlight on SSI Benefits for Noncitizens Social Security retirement follows the same 40-quarter rule that applies to citizens.
Obligations That Come With the Status
Being a permanent resident carries real duties, and ignoring them can put the status itself at risk.
- File federal and state tax returns every year and report worldwide income, the same way a citizen does. Wages, foreign income, investment gains, and retirement income all count.
- Register with the Selective Service System if you are male and between 18 and 25. Registration is due within 30 days of turning 18, or within 30 days of entering the country if you arrive within that age range.7Selective Service System. Who Needs to Register
- Carry your Green Card at all times if you are 18 or older. Not having it on you is a criminal misdemeanor punishable by a fine of up to $100, up to 30 days in jail, or both.8Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 8 USC 1304 – Forms for Registration and Fingerprinting
- Report any change of address to USCIS within 10 days of moving by filing Form AR-11. The rule applies to any noncitizen staying in the country for more than 30 days.
Conditional Permanent Residents Are a Special Case
Not every Green Card grants full ten-year status from the start. If your residency is based on a marriage that was less than two years old when you were approved, or on a qualifying EB-5 investment, you receive a conditional Green Card that lasts only two years.
Marriage-based conditional residents must file Form I-751, usually jointly with the sponsoring spouse, during the 90-day window immediately before the card expires. Missing that window terminates the status automatically.9U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Removing Conditions on Permanent Residence Based on Marriage Waivers of the joint filing requirement are available in cases involving divorce, abuse, or the death of the sponsoring spouse. Investor-based conditional residents follow a similar timeline using Form I-829, filed in the 90 days before the second anniversary of admission; failure to file also ends the status and starts removal proceedings.10eCFR. 8 CFR 1216.6 – Petition by Entrepreneur to Remove Conditional Basis of Lawful Permanent Resident Status
Keeping the Status: Travel and Residency
The word “permanent” carries weight. A Green Card holder is expected to actually live in the United States, and long absences abroad can jeopardize the status.
Staying outside the country for more than a year without a re-entry permit can cause the Green Card to be treated as abandoned when you try to return. Absences of more than six months but less than a year can raise questions too, especially later on when you apply for naturalization, where such a trip creates a presumption that your continuous residence was broken.11USCIS. USCIS Policy Manual Volume 12 Part D Chapter 3 – Continuous Residence
If you know you will be abroad for more than a year, file Form I-131 for a re-entry permit before leaving. USCIS recommends filing at least 60 days before departure. The permit is generally valid for two years, though it is limited to one year if you have already been outside the country for more than four of the last five years since becoming a permanent resident.12USCIS. Instructions for Form I-131, Application for Travel Documents Moving to another country with the intent to make it your permanent home can end the status regardless of how long you have been away. Keeping a home in the U.S., paying taxes here, and holding a job or bank accounts help show you have not abandoned residency.
How the Status Can Be Lost
Beyond abandonment, certain criminal convictions can trigger deportation and permanent loss of the Green Card. Two broad categories drive most removal cases: aggravated felonies and crimes involving moral turpitude.
Aggravated felonies include drug trafficking, murder, weapons trafficking, fraud above a certain dollar amount, and any theft or violent crime that results in a prison sentence of at least one year. A conviction almost always leads to deportation with no possibility of returning. Crimes involving moral turpitude generally cover offenses tied to fraud, dishonesty, or intent to harm; they can trigger removal if committed within the first five years of admission, or if the person has multiple convictions. A narrow exception applies to minor offenses where the maximum possible sentence is less than a year and the person did not actually serve six months or more.
Controlled substance violations, firearms offenses, and domestic violence convictions are independent grounds for removal. Even non-criminal conduct can cost you the status: failing to file tax returns, failing to register with Selective Service, or falsely claiming to be a U.S. citizen.
The Card Expires, the Status Does Not
A standard Green Card is valid for ten years. Within the six months before expiration, you file Form I-90 to renew or replace it, at a current fee of $465 on paper or $415 online.13USCIS. G-1055 Fee Schedule The card expires, but the underlying permanent resident status does not. While waiting on a replacement, your I-90 receipt notice together with the expired card serves as evidence of your status for up to 36 months from the card’s expiration date.14USCIS. Replace Your Green Card
From Permanent Resident to Citizen
For most Green Card holders, permanent residency is a stepping stone. You apply for naturalization by filing Form N-400, currently $760 on paper or $710 online, with a reduced $380 fee for eligible applicants.15USCIS. N-400, Application for Naturalization
The core requirements are:
- Five years of continuous residence in the United States before filing, or three years if you are married to and living with a U.S. citizen.16U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. I Am a Lawful Permanent Resident of 5 Years
- Physical presence in the country for at least 30 months out of those five years, or 18 months out of three on the shorter track.
- At least three months of residence in the state or USCIS district where you file.
- The ability to read, write, and speak basic English, plus a passing score on the civics test. Applicants filing on or after October 20, 2025, take the 2025 version, which draws from 128 questions and requires at least 12 correct out of 20.17U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. The Naturalization Interview and Test
- Good moral character during the statutory period, which certain criminal or immigration violations can undermine.
Applicants aged 50 or older with at least 20 years of permanent residence, or aged 55 or older with 15 years, may take the civics test in their native language. Once approved, you take the Oath of Allegiance and become a citizen, gaining the right to vote, serve on juries, sponsor a wider range of family members, and hold a U.S. passport.