Common examples of OTC derivatives include forward contracts, interest rate swaps, currency swaps, credit default swaps, equity swaps, commodity swaps, and over-the-counter options. These are privately negotiated contracts between two parties rather than standardized products bought and sold on an exchange, and together they make up a market with roughly $845.7 trillion in notional value outstanding as of mid-2025.1International Swaps and Derivatives Association. Key Trends in the Size and Composition of OTC Derivatives Markets in the First Half of 2025 Each type serves a different purpose, but all of them share the trait that defines the category: the terms are negotiated directly between the two counterparties.
What “Over-the-Counter” Means
An OTC derivative is a private contract between two parties where every term is negotiable. The notional amount, maturity date, payment schedule, and underlying reference asset or rate are all open for negotiation. A corporation hedging a foreign currency payment due in exactly 47 days can build an OTC contract that expires on precisely that date; no exchange-listed product would fit that need.
These transactions happen without a centralized exchange sitting between the parties. The market operates through a network of dealers, mostly large banks and financial institutions, that quote prices and often take the opposite side of a client’s trade. Pricing is negotiated privately and known only to the counterparties, unlike exchange-traded derivatives where every bid and offer is visible to the whole market and every contract clears through a central counterparty that guarantees performance.2Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago. Clearing and Settlement of Exchange Traded Derivatives OTC derivatives accept more counterparty risk in return for the ability to build exactly the contract the parties need.
Forward Contracts
A forward is the simplest OTC derivative: an agreement to buy or sell a specific asset at a set price on a future date. Once the terms are locked in, both sides are obligated to perform regardless of where the market price lands at maturity. A manufacturer expecting payment in euros three months from now can enter a forward to lock in today’s exchange rate and eliminate the risk that the euro weakens before the payment arrives.
The forward price typically reflects the current spot price adjusted for carrying costs like interest rate differentials or storage. A commodity producer might sell its output six months forward at a fixed price to stabilize revenue, while the buyer locks in a predictable input cost. Both sides give up the chance of a favorable price move in exchange for certainty.
Many forwards settle in cash rather than through physical delivery. Non-deliverable forwards (NDFs) are especially common in currency markets involving restricted or illiquid currencies. In an NDF, the parties agree on a forward exchange rate and a notional amount, but at maturity only the difference between the agreed rate and the prevailing spot rate is paid, typically in U.S. dollars, rather than exchanging the actual currencies.3Commodity Futures Trading Commission. Appendix A – Non-Deliverable Forwards and Non-Deliverable FX Options Cash settlement avoids the logistical complexity of physical delivery while achieving the same economic hedge.
Interest Rate Swaps
Swaps are the backbone of the OTC derivatives market, and interest rate derivatives alone account for about 79% of all OTC notional outstanding.4Bank for International Settlements. OTC Derivatives Statistics at End-June 2025 In a swap, two counterparties agree to exchange streams of cash flows over a set period based on different underlying variables. Unlike a forward, which settles once at maturity, a swap involves periodic payments throughout the life of the contract.
The interest rate swap is the single most traded OTC derivative. In a plain vanilla version, one party pays a fixed interest rate and the other pays a floating rate, both calculated on an agreed notional principal. The notional principal itself never changes hands. It exists only as a reference for computing each side’s payment, and on each settlement date only the net difference is transferred.
The floating rate on U.S. dollar swaps is now typically benchmarked to the Secured Overnight Financing Rate (SOFR), which replaced the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) after LIBOR’s official cessation in June 2023. SOFR is based on actual overnight lending transactions collateralized by U.S. Treasury securities, making it more robust than LIBOR, which relied on bank estimates.5Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Secured Overnight Financing Rate Data
The use case is intuitive. A company that borrowed at a floating rate worries about rising rates. It enters a swap to pay fixed and receive floating. The floating payments it receives offset what it owes on its loan, effectively converting floating-rate debt into fixed-rate debt. The counterparty, perhaps a bank or investor with the opposite view on rates, takes the other side.
Currency Swaps
Currency swaps go a step further by involving two different currencies. The defining feature is the exchange of principal. At the start, the counterparties swap principal amounts in their respective currencies at an agreed exchange rate. During the life of the swap, each party makes interest payments in the currency it received. At maturity, the principal amounts are exchanged back, usually at the original rate.
This structure is particularly valuable for companies that need to borrow in a foreign currency. A U.S. company with strong credit in dollar markets but needing Japanese yen can borrow dollars cheaply, then use a currency swap to convert the obligation into yen payments. A Japanese counterparty in the opposite position does the reverse. Both sides end up servicing debt in the currency they actually need, often at better all-in rates than they could get by borrowing directly in the foreign market.
Credit Default Swaps
A credit default swap transfers the risk that a borrower will default. The buyer makes periodic premium payments to the seller, similar in rhythm to insurance premiums. In return, the seller agrees to compensate the buyer if a credit event, such as a bankruptcy or missed payment, occurs with respect to a reference entity. Notional outstanding in the credit derivatives market stood at roughly $9.2 trillion at the end of 2024.6International Swaps and Derivatives Association. Key Trends in the Size and Composition of OTC Derivatives Markets in the Second Half of 2024
Banks and bondholders are the most common buyers. A bank holding $50 million in corporate bonds can purchase CDS protection on that issuer from a dealer. If the issuer defaults, the CDS seller pays the bank the par value minus whatever recovery amount the defaulted bonds fetch, making the bank roughly whole.
When a credit event triggers a large number of CDS contracts on the same reference entity, settlement typically happens through an industry-wide auction process managed by a Determinations Committee. The committee identifies which obligations qualify for delivery, then runs a standardized auction to establish a final recovery price. That price determines the cash payout for all outstanding CDS contracts on the entity, avoiding the chaos of thousands of bilateral settlements happening simultaneously.7International Swaps and Derivatives Association. The Credit Event Process
Equity Swaps and Total Return Swaps
Equity swaps allow one party to receive the return on a stock, basket of stocks, or equity index while paying the other party a fixed or floating interest rate. Pension funds, sovereign wealth funds, and asset managers use them to gain exposure to equity markets without actually purchasing the underlying shares, a structure that can be more efficient from both an operational and balance-sheet perspective.8International Swaps and Derivatives Association. Overview of OTC Equity Derivatives Markets – Use Cases and Recent Developments A total return swap, a close variant, includes dividends and other income in the return calculation, giving the receiver the full economic benefit of ownership without holding the asset.
Commodity Swaps
Commodity swaps work on the same principle applied to physical goods. An airline hedging fuel costs might enter a swap to pay a fixed price per barrel of jet fuel and receive the floating market price. If fuel prices spike, the floating payments it receives offset the higher cost of buying actual fuel. If prices drop, it pays more on the swap than it would have in the spot market, but the point was to lock in predictability, not to speculate. Producers use the opposite position, receiving a fixed price to stabilize revenue regardless of where the commodity trades.
OTC Options and Exotic Structures
OTC options give the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset at a specified price on or before a specified date. They work the way exchange-traded options do in concept, but every term is customizable. The strike price, expiration, notional size, and underlying asset can all be tailored to the buyer’s exact hedging need. A corporate treasurer hedging a $37.4 million receivable due on a specific date can get an OTC option that matches those parameters precisely.
The OTC market also supports exotic options with non-standard payoff structures. Barrier options activate or become worthless only if the underlying price crosses a predetermined level. Asian options base their payoff on the average price over a period rather than the price at a single moment, which smooths out short-term volatility. Bermudan options sit between American and European styles, allowing exercise only on specific predetermined dates rather than any time or only at expiration.
Exotic structures come with a valuation challenge that vanilla products don’t share. Because they rarely trade in liquid secondary markets, pricing often relies on internal models and assumptions rather than observable market prices, what the industry calls mark-to-model valuation. The inputs to those models involve judgment, and small changes in assumptions can produce meaningfully different values. Warren Buffett called this approach “marking to myth,” and the concern isn’t academic: during the 2008 financial crisis, mark-to-model valuations on complex structured products turned out to be dramatically wrong. The price on a position statement is only as reliable as the model behind it.
Who Can Trade OTC Derivatives
The OTC derivatives market is not open to everyone. Under the Commodity Exchange Act, participants generally must qualify as eligible contract participants (ECPs), a category that sets financial thresholds designed to limit these complex instruments to entities and individuals with the resources to bear the risks. Corporations need total assets exceeding $10 million, or net worth above $1 million if entering the trade to manage business risk. Individuals must have more than $10 million in discretionary investments, or $5 million if the transaction hedges an existing asset or liability.9Legal Information Institute. 7 USC 1a(18) – Eligible Contract Participant Financial institutions, registered broker-dealers, and government entities with large investment portfolios also qualify.
These restrictions exist for a reason. OTC derivatives carry risks that standardized exchange-traded products are designed to minimize: valuation uncertainty, counterparty exposure, illiquidity, and documentation complexity. The ECP requirements function as a gate, keeping bilateral negotiations to parties that can absorb losses if the trade goes wrong.