To do a title search on a property, you pull the parcel’s identifiers from a recent deed or tax bill, then use the county recorder’s Grantor-Grantee Index to trace ownership backward through every prior transfer, checking each recorded document for liens, easements, and other claims that would follow the property to a new owner. A complete search also reaches outside the county records to catch federal tax liens, bankruptcy filings, and unrecorded municipal debts that a county index will not show. The work is methodical rather than difficult, and most of it can be done in a single office visit or through an online portal once you know what you are looking for.
Gather the Property Identifiers First
Every title search starts with the identifiers that separate one parcel from every other in the county. The current owner’s full legal name is the primary search term in most index systems. A street address helps narrow results, but the reliable identifiers are the Assessor’s Parcel Number (sometimes called a tax parcel ID) and the formal legal description of the property. Both appear on prior deeds, property tax bills, and valuation notices from the local tax assessor. Pulling a copy of the most recent deed is often the fastest way to get the exact boundary description and parcel number.
When you request records, the staff or online portal may ask for more: the year the current owner acquired the property, the volume and page number of the last recorded deed, or the recording number assigned when the deed was filed. A single transposed digit in a parcel number can return records for the wrong property, so verify every identifier against the most recent tax bill or deed before you start.
Find the Right County Office
Real estate records are kept at the county level by an office called the County Recorder, Register of Deeds, or County Clerk, depending on the state. This office preserves every document that affects real estate interests in the county: deeds, mortgages, liens, easements, and releases. Many counties now offer a searchable online portal where you can look up records by owner name or parcel number, though fees for official copies vary.
Older records may exist only on paper or microfilm. If the online database does not cover the full period you need, you may have to visit the office in person or ask staff to pull records from the archives. Some counties also maintain separate indexes for different document types, with deeds in one set of books and liens in another, so ask the clerk which indexes you need to review for a complete picture.
Trace the Chain of Title Backward
The chain of title is the sequence of ownership transfers connecting the current owner back through every prior owner. Tracing it is the core of the search, and it depends on the Grantor-Grantee Index that nearly every recording office uses. The Grantor Index lists documents by the person transferring an interest (the seller). The Grantee Index lists documents by the person receiving an interest (the buyer).
Start with the current owner’s name in the Grantee Index. You should find the deed that transferred the property to them. That deed names the prior owner as grantor, and that prior owner becomes your next search subject: look them up as a grantee, find the deed that brought the property to them, and repeat. This backward progression typically continues at least 30 to 40 years, though it can extend further. Roughly half the states have adopted marketable title acts that set a statutory cutoff, commonly 30 to 40 years, after which certain old claims are considered extinguished. In states without such acts, searches may go back further.
As you trace each link, confirm the legal description on every deed matches the property you are researching. A single deed describing a different parcel breaks the chain and signals a problem. If you hit a gap, say a 15-year stretch with no recorded transfer, check probate court records for an inheritance or estate transfer, and marriage or divorce records for name changes that could explain the missing link. Online portals usually display the document type, recording date, and parties, with a clickable link to view the recorded image. In a physical office, you locate the correct volume by year and alphabetized section, then use the cross-reference to pull the full deed.
Check for Liens, Easements, and Pending Lawsuits
Tracing ownership is only half the work. The same records also disclose financial claims and legal restrictions that stay with the property when it changes hands.
Voluntary and Involuntary Liens
Voluntary liens are debts the owner agreed to, most commonly a mortgage or deed of trust. The recorded mortgage shows the original loan amount, the lender, and the date the lien was created. Involuntary liens are placed on the property without the owner’s consent because of unpaid obligations. Common examples are tax liens for unpaid property or income taxes, mechanic’s liens filed by contractors or suppliers who were not paid for work on the property, and judgment liens resulting from a court ruling against the owner.
For every lien you find, check whether a corresponding release, satisfaction, or discharge has been recorded. A mortgage paid off years ago should have a recorded satisfaction in the index. If the release is missing, the lien still shows as an open claim, even if the debt was actually paid. Missing releases are one of the most common title defects you will run into.
Easements and Restrictive Covenants
An easement grants someone other than the owner a right to use part of the property for a specific purpose. A utility easement, for example, lets a power or water company maintain infrastructure across a strip of land. A recorded easement runs with the property, binding every future owner regardless of whether they agreed to it. Restrictive covenants, often imposed by a developer or homeowners’ association, limit what you can do with the property: capping building height, barring commercial use, requiring certain landscaping standards.
Lis Pendens Notices
A lis pendens is a recorded notice that a lawsuit is pending which could affect ownership of or rights to the property. It places a cloud on the title, meaning anyone who buys or lends against the property during the litigation takes it subject to the outcome. Most buyers and lenders will not proceed with a transaction when a lis pendens appears, because the risk is too unpredictable. If you find one, determine the nature of the lawsuit and whether it has been resolved before going further.
Search Federal Records the County Won’t Show
County land records capture most claims, but two categories sit at the federal level and require separate searches.
Federal Tax Liens
When a property owner fails to pay federal taxes after the IRS sends a demand, a lien automatically attaches to all of the owner’s property and rights to property, including real estate.1Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 26 U.S. Code 6321 – Lien for Taxes That lien is not enforceable against a buyer or lender until the IRS files a public Notice of Federal Tax Lien.2Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 26 U.S. Code 6323 – Validity and Priority Against Certain Persons The notice is typically filed in the county where the property sits, so it should appear during a standard title search. Once filed, a federal tax lien generally lasts 10 years from the date the tax was assessed plus an additional 30 days, then self-releases if the IRS does not refile.3Internal Revenue Service. Notice of Lien Refiling The IRS also releases the lien within 30 days after the full tax debt is paid.4Internal Revenue Service. Understanding a Federal Tax Lien
Bankruptcy Filings
If the seller has filed for bankruptcy, the property may be part of the bankruptcy estate, and any transfer could be restricted or void. Bankruptcy cases are filed in federal court and do not always show up in county land records. To check, use the PACER Case Locator, a national index covering all federal district and bankruptcy courts.5PACER. PACER Case Locator Search by party name to see whether the seller is involved in any federal litigation. Access costs $0.10 per page, capped at $3.00 per document, and fees are waived entirely if you accrue $30 or less in a quarter.6PACER. Public Access to Court Electronic Records
Request a Municipal Lien Certificate
A standard title search only reveals what has been recorded with the county. Certain obligations owed to a city or municipality may never be recorded there. Unpaid water or sewer bills, outstanding code enforcement fines, and special assessments for road or sidewalk improvements are often maintained only in the municipality’s own records. A property can carry thousands of dollars in unpaid code violation fines that never appear in any county index.
To catch these, request a municipal lien certificate (sometimes called a municipal lien search) from the city or town where the property is located. The certificate reports any outstanding utility balances, code violations, open permits, and special assessments tied to the property. Cost varies by jurisdiction but is typically modest. In a full closing, the title company or closing attorney usually orders this automatically; if you are running your own search, you have to request it separately.
What to Do About Defects You Find
Not every problem that surfaces is fatal, but each one needs to be resolved or accounted for before a sale closes.
- Missing lien releases. If a mortgage was paid off but no satisfaction was recorded, the lender or its successor can prepare and file the missing document. This is the most common and most easily fixed defect.
- Minor clerical errors. Misspelled names, incorrect legal descriptions, or missing notary acknowledgments on old deeds can sometimes be corrected with a corrective deed or affidavit filed in the county records. Many states also have curative statutes that automatically validate certain old technical defects after a set number of years.
- Unresolved liens. Outstanding tax liens, mechanic’s liens, or judgment liens typically have to be paid off at or before closing. The settlement agent can direct sale proceeds to satisfy the debts and record the releases at the same time.
- Boundary disputes and encroachments. A title search alone will not reveal a neighbor’s fence or structure extending onto the property. That requires a professional land survey comparing what stands on the ground to the legal boundaries in the deed.
- Quiet title action. When a defect cannot be resolved on paper, such as a competing claim from a missing heir, an old unresolved lien from a defunct company, or a fraudulent deed in the chain, the current owner or buyer may need to file a quiet title action. This is a lawsuit asking a court to examine the property’s history and issue a ruling on who holds valid ownership, permanently barring anyone else from asserting a claim.7Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 U.S. Code 1655 – Lien Enforcement; Absent Defendants
When to Hire a Professional
You can run a basic title search yourself at the county recorder’s office or through its online portal, and for a straightforward property with a short, clean ownership history that may be enough to spot obvious problems. Most real estate transactions still benefit from professional involvement.
A title abstractor examines the public records and produces a written summary called an abstract of title, listing every recorded document in the chain. An abstractor delivers a factual report but does not guarantee or insure the title. A title insurance company performs the search, issues a title commitment, and then assumes financial liability for covered defects through the policy it writes.
Professional title searches for a standard residential property typically run $75 to $200, though properties with complex histories or gaps in the chain can cost $300 or more. Title service fees, including the search, the insurance premium, and related closing costs, appear on your Loan Estimate and Closing Disclosure, and you may have the right to shop for these services separately.8Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. What Are Title Service Fees? A professional search is especially worth the cost when the property has had multiple owners in a short period, when there are gaps or irregularities in the chain, or when the property has been through foreclosure, probate, or bankruptcy.
Even a thorough search cannot guarantee every possible defect has been found. Forged documents, undisclosed heirs, and recording errors can escape detection, which is why lenders financing a purchase almost always require a lender’s title insurance policy as a condition of the loan.9Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. TRID Title Insurance Disclosures Factsheet That policy protects only the lender’s financial interest, not yours. An owner’s title insurance policy is optional, but without one you carry the full financial risk if a defect surfaces after closing, including the cost of legal defense.