To collect past due accounts, verify the debt with clean documentation, contact the debtor directly and try to work out a payment plan, send a formal demand letter by certified mail, and if none of that produces payment, hand the account to a collection agency or file suit. Each step has legal requirements that shift depending on whether you’re chasing a consumer or a business, and skipping those requirements is how creditors turn recoverable debts into liability of their own.
Know Whether It’s a Consumer or Commercial Debt
Before you pick up the phone, figure out which kind of debt you have. The Fair Debt Collection Practices Act governs how consumer debts are collected, and violating it can result in statutory damages of up to $1,000 per lawsuit plus attorney fees. Commercial debt collection between businesses runs under far fewer federal restrictions.
The distinction that catches creditors off guard: the FDCPA generally applies to third-party debt collectors, not to original creditors collecting their own debts.1Federal Trade Commission. Fair Debt Collection Practices Act Text If you run a plumbing company and a customer hasn’t paid, you’re the original creditor and the FDCPA doesn’t restrict your calls and letters the way it would restrict a collection agency. The moment you hand that account to a third-party collector, every FDCPA rule kicks in for that agency. Some states impose their own collection rules on original creditors, so don’t treat the federal exemption as a blank check.
For business-to-business debts, the FDCPA doesn’t apply at all, even if a third-party agency handles the collection. You have considerably more flexibility in how and when you reach out. The timing restrictions, validation notice requirements, and cease-communication rules below apply only when a third-party collector is pursuing a consumer debt.
Pull Your Documentation Together First
Strong documentation is what separates a debt you can collect from a debt you can only complain about. Before making any contact, gather everything that proves the obligation exists and that payment is overdue:
- The signed contract, service agreement, or purchase order.
- Invoices, delivery receipts, or completion records showing you delivered what was promised.
- A payment ledger listing all payments received, credits applied, and the remaining balance.
- The exact date the account first became past due and the original principal amount.
If your contract specifies an interest rate on overdue balances, note it. You’ll need it to calculate the total owed. If the contract is silent on interest, most states impose a default statutory rate on overdue obligations, though the rates vary. Some states set the default at 10%, others at 5% or 6%, and some tie the rate to a federal benchmark that fluctuates. Check your state’s law before adding interest to what you claim.
Pull any identifying information from the debtor’s original credit application into the file: tax identification numbers, addresses, phone numbers. If you end up in court or working with a collection agency, having the correct legal name and current contact details saves weeks.
Contact the Debtor and Offer a Payment Plan
Start with a professional phone call or email that identifies the overdue invoice and asks about the payment status. People forget invoices, lose them in email, or run into short-term cash flow problems. This first conversation is about finding out what’s actually going on, and it often resolves the issue without further escalation.
If the debtor acknowledges the debt but can’t pay in full, a structured payment plan keeps money flowing rather than stalling entirely. Plans that break the balance into monthly installments over six to twelve months work well for both sides. Put any agreement in writing. An unsigned verbal arrangement has almost no enforcement value if you end up in court.
Keep a detailed log of every contact attempt: dates, times, who you spoke with, what was said. If the debtor admits to owing the money during a call, note that specifically. Judges notice when a creditor can show a clean timeline of reasonable collection efforts.
Even as an original creditor collecting a consumer debt, follow the common-sense guardrails the FDCPA formalizes for third-party collectors. Contact during reasonable hours, don’t call someone’s workplace if you know their employer prohibits it, and stop calling once someone has clearly refused to pay and you’ve decided to escalate. The hours the FDCPA uses as a baseline, between 8 a.m. and 9 p.m. local time, are a sensible standard for any collection call.2Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 15 USC 1692c – Communication in Connection with Debt Collection
Send a Formal Demand Letter
The demand letter is your last attempt to resolve the debt before spending money on lawyers or agencies. It needs to be businesslike, specific, and clear about what happens next. Include:
- The total amount owed, original principal plus accrued interest, calculated to the date of the letter.
- A specific payment deadline, typically ten to fifteen days from the letter date.
- Accepted payment methods: wire transfers, certified checks, online payment portals, whatever you’ll accept.
- A clear statement that you intend to pursue legal action, report to credit agencies, or refer the account to a collection agency if the deadline passes.
Send it by certified mail with return receipt requested. The receipt proves the debtor actually received the notice, which matters if a judge later asks whether you gave the debtor a fair opportunity to pay before filing suit. Keep a copy of the letter and the signed receipt in your file.
A well-written demand letter resolves a surprising number of accounts. The formality signals you’re serious, and many debtors who ignored phone calls respond to a letter that spells out consequences with a specific deadline.
Watch the Statute of Limitations
Every debt has a filing deadline. Wait too long to sue and the statute of limitations expires, taking your right to use the courts with it. Most states set the period between three and six years from the date of default, though some allow longer depending on whether the debt is based on a written contract, an oral agreement, or an open account like a credit card.3Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Can Debt Collectors Collect a Debt That’s Several Years Old
Two things can restart the clock on an otherwise expired debt: a partial payment from the debtor, or a written acknowledgment that the debt exists. Accepting a small “good faith” payment on a very old debt can inadvertently revive your ability to sue, but it can also restart the debtor’s exposure in ways that create complications. Know where you stand on the timeline before accepting partial payments on stale accounts.
Once the statute of limitations has run, a debt collector cannot sue or threaten to sue on the debt.4Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Collection of Time-Barred Debts – Regulation F 1006.26 Collectors can still send letters and make calls, but any threat of legal action on a time-barred debt violates federal regulations. Check the limitations period early. Discovering your debt is time-barred after you’ve already paid a collection agency is an expensive lesson.
Turn the Account Over to a Collection Agency
When internal efforts and the demand letter haven’t worked, a collection agency is the next step. Agencies typically work on contingency, taking a percentage of whatever they recover and charging nothing if they collect nothing. That percentage usually falls between 20% and 50% of the collected amount, with older and smaller debts commanding higher fees because they’re harder to collect.
Send the agency your complete file: original contract, invoices, payment ledger, copies of demand letters, and communication log. Missing documentation slows everything down and gives the debtor grounds to dispute the claim.
If the agency is collecting a consumer debt, federal law requires it to send the debtor a written validation notice within five days of initial contact. That notice must include the amount owed, the name of the creditor, and a statement that the debtor has 30 days to dispute the debt in writing.5Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 15 USC 1692g – Validation of Debts If the debtor disputes within that window, the collector must stop collection activity until it sends verification. The CFPB’s Regulation F adds detail to what the notice must contain, including an itemized breakdown of the current balance showing interest, fees, and payments since a reference date.6Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Regulation F 1006.34 – Notice for Validation of Debts
One more rule trips up creditors working with agencies. If a consumer sends the collector a written request to stop all communication, the collector generally must comply. The only exceptions are notifying the debtor that collection efforts are ending or that the creditor intends to pursue a specific legal remedy such as filing a lawsuit.2Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 15 USC 1692c – Communication in Connection with Debt Collection A cease-communication letter doesn’t erase the debt. It just forces you to decide whether to sue or walk away.
File a Lawsuit
If direct collection and agencies haven’t produced results, a lawsuit may be the only remaining path. For smaller debts, small claims court is fast and inexpensive. Maximum claim amounts vary widely by state, from as low as $2,500 to as high as $25,000, so check your local court’s limit before filing. Filing fees also vary, generally scaling with the amount you’re suing for, and can range from under $30 to several hundred dollars.
The small claims process works like this: file a complaint describing the debt and the amount owed, pay the filing fee, and arrange for the defendant to be served with a summons. Service usually requires a process server or another method your court approves. You typically cannot serve the papers yourself. Expect a court date within 30 to 90 days of filing.
For debts exceeding small claims limits, you’ll file in a higher civil court, and at that point hiring an attorney makes sense. Costs go up substantially, so weigh the size of the debt against the expense of litigation. A $12,000 debt might be worth pursuing. Spending $8,000 in legal fees to recover $6,000 is not.
Bring your entire file to court: the signed agreement, invoices, delivery records, payment history, copies of demand letters with certified mail receipts, and your communication log.
Enforce the Judgment
Winning a judgment and collecting money are two different things. A judgment is a court order saying the debtor owes you a specific amount, but the court doesn’t collect it for you. Several enforcement tools are available.
Wage Garnishment
Wage garnishment directs the debtor’s employer to withhold a portion of each paycheck and send it to you. Federal law caps the garnishment amount at the lesser of 25% of disposable earnings or the amount by which weekly disposable earnings exceed 30 times the federal minimum wage.7Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 15 USC 1673 – Restriction on Garnishment “Disposable earnings” means what’s left after legally required deductions like taxes and Social Security, not after rent and groceries.8U.S. Department of Labor. Fact Sheet 30 – Wage Garnishment Protections of the Consumer Credit Protection Act Some states impose stricter limits, so the federal cap is a ceiling, not a guarantee.
Bank Levies
A bank levy freezes money in the debtor’s account and transfers it to you. This can be more effective than garnishment for debtors who are self-employed or work irregular hours. Certain federal benefits deposited into bank accounts are automatically protected from private creditor levies. Banks are required to calculate a “protected amount” that cannot be frozen. Protected benefits include Social Security, Supplemental Security Income, Veterans Affairs benefits, federal railroad retirement payments, and civil service retirement benefits.9U.S. Department of the Treasury. Guidelines for Garnishment of Accounts Containing Federal Benefit Payments The debtor doesn’t need to file an exemption claim for these funds. The bank identifies and protects them automatically when the levy arrives.
Post-Judgment Interest
Once you have a judgment, interest continues to accrue on the unpaid amount. In federal court, the rate is tied to the weekly average one-year constant maturity Treasury yield published by the Federal Reserve, calculated from the date the judgment was entered.10Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 1961 – Interest State courts set their own post-judgment rates, which vary considerably. The longer a judgment goes unpaid, the more the debtor owes.
Keeping the Judgment Alive
Judgments don’t last forever. Most states set an enforceability period of 10 years, though the range runs from 5 to 20 years depending on the state and the type of debt. If a judgment expires before you’ve collected, you lose your enforcement rights. Nearly every state allows you to renew a judgment before it expires, which resets the clock, but you have to file the renewal paperwork on time. Put a calendar reminder well before the expiration date. Miss it and you may be starting over, and if the statute of limitations on the underlying debt has also expired, you may be out of options entirely.
When the Debtor Files Bankruptcy
The moment a debtor files for bankruptcy, an automatic stay takes effect that immediately halts all collection activity. Lawsuits, garnishments, phone calls, demand letters, everything stops.11Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 11 USC 362 – Automatic Stay This applies whether or not you’ve been formally notified of the filing, and any collection action taken in violation of the stay can be voided by the court. Willful violations can result in damages, attorney fees, and in some cases punitive penalties.
To preserve your claim in the bankruptcy case, you typically need to file a proof of claim. In a voluntary Chapter 7, Chapter 12, or Chapter 13 case, the deadline is 70 days after the order for relief. Involuntary Chapter 7 cases give you 90 days.12Legal Information Institute. Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure – Rule 3002 Missing this deadline usually means your claim gets nothing from the bankruptcy estate’s distribution.
Whether you actually recover anything depends on the type of bankruptcy and where your claim falls in the priority order. Secured creditors with collateral fare better than unsecured creditors. In many Chapter 7 cases, general unsecured creditors receive pennies on the dollar or nothing at all. If the debtor is genuinely insolvent, the bankruptcy process may confirm the debt is uncollectible, which at least gives you clarity for tax purposes.
Write Off What You Can’t Collect
When a debt is truly uncollectible, you may be able to deduct the loss on your tax return. The rules depend on whether the debt was connected to your business.
A business bad debt, one created or acquired in connection with your trade, can be deducted as an ordinary loss. If you use the accrual method of accounting and previously included the amount in gross income, you can deduct the uncollectible portion. Cash-method businesses cannot deduct bad debts for amounts they never reported as income, since there’s no income to offset.13Internal Revenue Service. Publication 334 – Tax Guide for Small Business To claim the deduction, you need to show that you took reasonable steps to collect and that the debt became partly or totally worthless during the tax year. For partially worthless debts, you can only deduct the amount you actually charged off on your books that year.
Nonbusiness bad debts follow different rules. If you lent money to someone outside of any trade or business and they can’t repay, the loss is treated as a short-term capital loss regardless of how long the debt was outstanding.14Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 26 USC 166 – Bad Debts It first offsets any capital gains you have, and then up to $3,000 of the remaining loss can reduce your ordinary income per year. Unlike business bad debts, you can only deduct a nonbusiness bad debt when it becomes totally worthless. Partial deductions aren’t available. Any unused loss carries forward.
Either way, keep thorough records of your collection efforts. The IRS expects you to demonstrate that the debt genuinely became worthless and that you made a real attempt to collect before claiming the deduction.